Teenage pregnancy

 Teenage pregnancy is referred to as a pregnancy in a young woman below her 20th birthday when the pregnancy ends, regardless of whether the woman is married or is legally an adult. In everyday speech, the speaker is usually referring to unmarried minors who become pregnant unintentionally.

The average age of menarche (first menstrual period) is 12 years old, though this figure varies by ethnicity, and ovulation occurs only irregularly before this. Whether the onset of fertility in young women leads to pregnancy depends on a number of factors, both societal and personal. Worldwide, rates of teenage pregnancy range from 143 per 1000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1000 in South Korea.

Pregnant teenagers face many of the same obstetrics issues as women in their 20s and 30s. However, there are additional medical concerns for mothers age 14 or younger, especially if they live in a developing country. For mothers between 15 and 19, age in itself is not a risk factor, but additional risks may be associated with socioeconomic factors.

In developed countries, teenage pregnancies are associated with many social issues, including lower educational levels, higher rates of poverty, and other poorer "life outcomes" in children of teenage mothers. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage, and carries a social stigma in many communities and cultures. Many studies and campaigns have attempted to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of teenage pregnancies. In other countries and cultures, particularly in the developing world, teenage pregnancy is usually within marriage and does not involve a social stigma. Among developed countries, the United States and United Kingdom have the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while Japan and South Korea have the lowest.

                                    

GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

Genetically modified foods are those foods that have been altered genetically in order to increases it's size. Scientist has often warned that introducing genetically modified materials into organisms could change the natural properties of most plants i.e. plants may never evolve naturally of which from my perspective will be extremely dangerous.
This very technology known to be recombinant DNA technology is capable of changing the genetic makeup of organisms. Scientist says that it helps them in creating traits that they wish of to surprises natural traits they don't want.

THE EFFECTS OF THE GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS (GMO)
There are several reasons why the genetically modified foods (GMO), may affect you some of which:
1. It is usually not clear which of the foods may contain genetically modified foods (GMO)
2. One may not be too certain about the long term effects of these genetically modified foods (GMO)
3. Agro- chemical companies and the governments may charge farmers fees to grow their genetically modified foods crops, there by affecting the economy negatively
What are the potential dangers of genetically modified foods?
Genetically engineered products clearly have the potential to be toxic and a threat to human health. In 1989, a genetically engineered brand of L-tryptophan, a common dietary supplement, killed 37 Americans and permanently disabled or afflicted more than 5,000 others with a painful and potentially fatal blood disorder, eosinophilia myalgia syndrome (EMS), before it was recalled by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
The manufacturer, Showa Denko, Japan's 3rd largest chemical company, had for the first time in 1989 used genetically engineered bacteria to produce the over-the-counter supplement. It is believed that the bacteria somehow became contaminated during the recombinant DNA process. Showa Denko has already paid out over $2 billion in damages to EMS victims.
Dr. Arpad Pusztai on genetically modified foods
In 1999, front-page headline stories in the British press revealed Rowett Institute scientist Dr. Arpad Pusztai's explosive research findings that genetically engineered potatoes, spliced with DNA from the snowdrop plant and a commonly used viral promoter, the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CaMv), are poisonous to mammals. Genetically engineered-snowdrop potatoes, found to be significantly different in chemical composition from regular potatoes, damaged the vital organs and immune systems of lab rats which were fed the genetically engineered potatoes.
Most alarming of all, damage to the rats' stomach linings - apparently a severe viral infection - most likely was caused by the CaMv viral promoter, a promoter spliced into nearly all genetically engineered foods and crops.
In August 1998, Dr. Pusztai appeared on the British television program 'The World in Action' to report the findings of his study. In an attempt to appease the resulting public furor, Rowett Institute director Philip James (who had approved Dr. Pusztai's television appearance) said the research didn't exist. He fired Dr. Pusztai, broke up his research team, seized the data, and halted 6 other similar projects.
It later became known that Monsanto, a leading U.S. biotech firm, had given the Rowett Institute a $224,000 grant prior to Dr. Pusztai's interview and subsequent firing.
Evidence emerged which supports the legitimacy of Dr. Pusztai's research. The research that James claimed did not exist showed up during an internal audit. Later, 'Lancet', the prestigious British medical journal, published a peer-reviewed paper which Dr. Pusztai had co-authored supporting the research.
Prince Charles began to question the safety of genetically engineered foods on his website and became allies with Dr. Pusztai. Charles wrote an article in the 'Daily Mail' expressing concerns over the lack of safety research on genetically engineered foods.
The U.S. media has not covered the disturbing public health questions raised by Dr. Arpad Pusztai's research into genetically engineered potatoes. Genetic engineering continues to receive a clean bill of health by United States' regulatory agencies despite the fact that no independent, government-supported research has been or is being conducted into the effects of genetically engineered foods on mammals.
This is in large part due to the fact that the biotech industry has a sophisticated public relations apparatus in place which has so far successfully been able to spin the industry's line that genetically altered food is absolutely safe. To better understand how public relations firms shape the public's awareness and beliefs
Perhaps the most important event in the last few years was the contamination of the food supply with the unapproved genetically engineered Star Link corn. The corn had been approved by the Environmental Protection Agency for consumption by animals but not humans, because of concerns that it may cause allergic reactions
The Star Link discovery by a coalition of advocacy groups has resulted in approximately 300 food products being recalled, mass litigation within the agriculture community, and drops in exports to key markets. Star Link has also raised questions about the United States' regulatory system, and at the end of 2000, several bills in Congress were proposing major changes in the way U.S. agencies regulate these crops.

STIGMA AND DISCRIMINATION AND RIGHTS OF PLWHA (people living with HIV/Aids), PABA (people affected by Aids) AND OVC (orphans and vulnerable children)

             

WHAT IS STIGMA?

HIV related stigma refers to prejudice, discounting, discredicting and discrimination directed at people perceived to have HIV/AIDS, as well as the individuals, groups and communities with which they are associated.

STIGMA

Stigma can be defined as a social process that marginalizes and labels those who are different

Discrimination

Discrimination occurs when distinction is made against a person that results in being treated unfairly and unjustly on the basis of being infested with the HIV virus

Reasons and consequences of discrimination against PLWHA, PABA AND OVC

The Following reasons have been identified as reasons for discrimination against PLWHA, PABA AND OVC

Fear

Ignorance

Misconceptions

Moral bias as regards HIV/AIDS

Weak legal system

Stigma and discriminating against PLWHA, PABA AND OVC have negative consequences on the society as well as the people (e.g. PLWHA, PABA AND OVC) stigmatized. Some of these consequences are:

Rapid spread of HIV

Loss of skilled manpower

Emotional problems in case of loved ones involved

Lack of needed support

Psychological pressure

Social disorder

Stigma and Discrimination against PLWHA, PABA AND OVC are factors that promote that spread of HIV/AIDS and must be addressed at all levels.

HOW TO STOP STIGMATIZATION AND DICRIMINATION AMONG PLWHA, PABA AND OVC

Stigma and discrimination among PLWHA, PABA AND OVC can be stopped through the following means:

AWARENESS SENSITIZATION

It is necessary for the government and covered bodies like the United Nations to carryout sensitization lectures and awareness to enlighten people that HIV/AIDS cannot be transmitted by hugging, shaking of hands and eating with the positively living.

CONCERN

Groups should be created by various organizations to help fight against offenders that step on the rights of citizens living positively

SELF ORIENTATION

The people also need to get out of the dark and extend the love to those living positively because by so doing they stand lesser risk of transmission

HOW SMOKING CAN AFFECT THE HUMAN SYSTEM

There is hardly a part of the human body that is not affected by chemicals found in the cigarette smoking. Let us go to the human body for a brief look up.

STARTING AT THE TOP

As smokers,they are at the risk of having cancer of the mouth. Gum disease, tooth decay and bad breath can be caused by smoking. Smokers are known to constantly experience constant headaches and this could be due to lack of oxygen going into the brain and this can lead to stroke.

LUNGS AND BRONCHI

Moving down to your chest, smoke moves through the bronchi, or breathing tubes. Hydrogen cyanide and other chemicals in smoke affect the lining of the bronchi, giving rise to inflammation and chronic cough. Due to the weakening of the bronchi, there is therefore a likelihood of contacting bronchial infections. Mucus secretion in the lungs is impaired; also leading to chronic cough. Research has shown that smokers are 10 times likely to have lung cancer and emphysema as nonsmokers.

SMOKING AND THE HEART

The effect of smoking on the human heart is very worrisome. Nicotine raises blood pressure and makes the blood to clot more easily. Carbon monoxide robs the oxygen blood and leads to the development of cholesterol deposits on the artery walls and all of these effects could lead to heart attack. Also stroke could also arise from pro circulation from cholesterol deposits, loss of circulation in fingers and toes and impotence.

SMOKING OF THE BODY’S ORGAN

The digestive system can also be affected. the tars in smoke can trigger cancer of the esophagus and throat. Smoking can cause increased stomach acid secretion, which could lead to heartburn and ulcers. Smokers have higher rates of deadly pancreatic cancer. Many of the carcinogens from cigarettes are excreted in the urine where their presence can cause bladder cancer, which is often fatal. High blood pressure from smoking can damage the kidneys.

THE RESULT

The health effects of smoking have results we can measure. Researchers say forty percent of men who are heavy smokers will die before they reach retirement age, as compared to only 18 percent of nonsmokers. Women who smoke face the risk of cervical cancer, and pregnant women who smoke are at risk with the health status of their unborn babies.

But the good news is that when you quit smoking your body tends to start repairing itself. Ten years after you quit, your body have repaired most of the damages caused by smoking and those who wait until cancer sets into their body are normally not so lucky. THIS IS WHY YOU MUST QUIT NOW

 

QUICK GUIDE ON HOW TO QUIT SMOKING

INTRODUCTION

This guides you from thinking about stopping through actually doing it - from the day you quit to quitting for keeps. It gives tips on fighting temptation - and what to do if you give in - and on avoiding weight gain. By telling you what to expect, it can help you through the day-to-day process of becoming and remaining a nonsmoker.

Here you'll find a variety of tips and helpful hints on kicking your smoking habit. Take a few moments to look at each suggestion carefully. Pick those you feel comfortable with, and decide today that you're going to use them to quit. It may take a while to find the combination that's right for you, but you can quit for good, even if you've tried to quit before.

Many smokers have successfully given up cigarettes by replacing them with new habits, without quitting "cold turkey," planning a special program, or seeking professional help.

The following approaches include many of those most popular with ex-smokers. Remember that successful methods are as different as the people who use them. What may seem silly to others may be just what you need to quit - so don't be embarrassed to try something new. These methods can make your own personal efforts a little easier.

Pick the ideas that make sense to you. And then follow through - you'll have a much better chance of success.

PREPARING YOURSELF FOR QUITTING...

    * Decide positively that you want to quit. Try to avoid negative thoughts about how difficult it might be.

    * List all the reasons you want to quit. Every night before going to bed, repeat one of the reasons 10 times.

    * Develop strong personal reasons in addition to your health and obligations to others. For example, think of all the time you waste taking cigarette breaks, rushing out to buy a pack, hunting for a light, etc.

    * Begin to condition yourself physically: Start a modest exercise program; drink more fluids; get plenty of rest; and avoid fatigue.

    * Set a target date for quitting - perhaps a special day such as your birthday, your anniversary, or the Great American Smokeout. If you smoke heavily at work, quit during your vacation so that you're already committed to quitting when you return. Make the date sacred, and don't let anything change it. This will make it easy for you to keep track of the day you became a nonsmoker and to celebrate that date every year.

       
KNOWING WHAT TO EXPECT...

    * Have realistic expectations - quitting isn't easy, but it's not impossible either. More than 3 million Americans quit every year.

    * Understand that withdrawal symptoms are TEMPORARY. They usually last only 1-2 weeks.

    * Know that most relapses occur in the first week after quitting, when withdrawal symptoms are strongest and your body is still dependent on nicotine. Be aware that this will be your hardest time, and use all your personal resources - willpower, family, friends, and the tips in this booklet - to get you through this critical period successfully.

    * Know that most other relapses occur in the first 3 months after quitting, with situational triggers - such as a particularly stressful event - occur unexpectedly. These are the times when people reach for cigarettes automatically, because they associate smoking with relaxing. This is the kind of situation that's hard to prepare yourself for until it happens, so it's especially important to recognize it if it does happen. Remember that smoking is a habit, but a habit you can break.

    * Realize that most successful ex-smokers quit for good only after several attempts. You may be one of those who can quit your first try. But if you're not, DON'T GIVE UP. Try again.

INVOLVING SOMEONE ELSE...

    * Bet a friend you can quit on your target date. Put your cigarette money aside for every day, and forfeit it if you smoke. (But if you do smoke, DON'T GIVE UP. Simply strengthen your resolve and try again.)

    * Ask your spouse or a friend to quit with you.

    * Tell your family and friends that you're quitting and when. They can be an important source of support, both before and after you quit.

WAYS OF QUITTING...

Switch brands

    * Switch to a brand you find distasteful.

    * Change to a brand that's low in tar and nicotine a couple of weeks before your target date. This will help change your smoking behavior. However, DO NOT smoke more cigarettes, inhale them more often or more deeply, or place your fingertips over the holes in the filters. All of these will increase your nicotine intake, and the idea is to get your body used to functioning without nicotine.

Cut down the number of cigarettes you smoke

    * Smoke only half of each cigarette.

    * Each day, postpone lighting your first cigarette 1 hour.

    * Decide you'll smoke only during odd or even hours of the day.

    * Decide beforehand how many cigarettes you'll smoke during the day. For each additional cigarette, give a dollar to your favorite charity.

    * Change your eating habits to help you cut down. For example, drink milk, which many people consider incompatible with smoking. End meals or snacks with something that won't lead to a cigarette.

    * Reach for a glass of juice instead of a cigarette for a "pick-me-up."

    * Remember: Cutting down can help you quit, but it's not a substitute for quitting. If you're down to about seven cigarettes a day, it's time to set your target date and get ready to stick to it.

Don't Smoke "Automatically"

    * Smoke only those cigarettes you really want. Catch yourself before you light up a cigarette out of pure habit.

    * Don't empty your ashtrays. This will remind you of how many cigarettes you've smoked each day, and the sight and smell of stale butts will be very unpleasant.

    * Make yourself aware of each cigarette by using the opposite hand or putting cigarettes in an unfamiliar location or a different pocket to break the automatic reach.

    * If you light up many times during the day without even thinking about it, try to look in a mirror each time you put a match to your cigarette - you may decide you don't need it.

Make smoking inconvenient

    * Stop buying cigarettes by the carton. Wait until one pack is empty before you buy another.

    * Stop carrying cigarettes with you at home and at work. Make them difficult to get to.

Make smoking unpleasant

    * Smoke only under circumstances that aren't especially pleasurable for you. If you like to smoke with others, smoke alone. Turn your chair toward an empty corner and focus only on the cigarette you are smoking and its many negative effects.

    * Collect all you cigarette butts in one large glass container as a visual reminder of the filth smoking represents.

JUST BEFORE QUITTING...

    * Practice going without cigarettes.

    * Don't think of NEVER smoking again. Think of quitting in terms of 1 day at a time.

    * Tell yourself you won't smoke today, and then don't.

    * Clean your clothes to rid them of the cigarette smell, which can linger a long time.

ON THE DAY YOU QUIT...

    * Throw away all your cigarettes and matches. Hide your lighters and ashtrays.

    * Visit the dentist and have your teeth cleaned to get rid of tobacco stains. Notice how nice they look, and resolve to keep them that way.

    * Make a list of things you'd like to buy for yourself or someone else. Estimate the cost in terms of packs of cigarettes, and put the money aside to buy these presents.

    * Keep very busy on the big day. Go to the movies, exercise, take long walks, go bike riding.

    * Remind your family and friends that this is your quit date, and ask them to help you over the rough spots of the first couple of days and weeks.

    * Buy yourself a treat or do something special to celebrate.

IMMEDIATELY AFTER QUITTING...

    * Develop a clean, fresh, nonsmoking environment around yourself - at work and at home. Buy yourself flowers - you may be surprised how much you can enjoy their scent now.

    * The first few days after you quit smoking, spend as much free time as possible in places where smoking isn't allowed, such as libraries, museums, theaters, department stores, and churches.

    * Drink large quantities of water and fruit juice (but avoid sodas that contain caffeine).

    * Try to avoid alcohol, coffee, and other beverages that you associate with cigarette smoking.

    * Strike up a conversation instead of a match for a cigarette.

    * If you miss the sensation of having a cigarette in your hand, play with something else - a pencil, a paper clip, a marble.

    * If you miss having something in your mouth, try toothpicks or a fake cigarette.

Avoid temptation

    * Instead of smoking after meals, get up from the table and brush your teeth or go for a walk.

    * If you always smoke while driving, listen to a particularly interesting radio program or your favorite music, or take public transportation for a while, if you can.

    * For the first 1-3 weeks, avoid situations you strongly associate with the pleasurable aspects of smoking, such as watching your favorite TV program, sitting in your favorite chair, or having a cocktail before dinner.

    * Until you're confident of your ability to stay off cigarettes, limit your socializing to healthful, outdoor activities or situations where smoking isn't allowed.

    * If you must be in a situation where you'll be tempted to smoke (such as a cocktail or dinner party), try to associate with the nonsmokers there.

    * Try to analyze cigarette ads to understand how they attempt to "sell" you on individual brands.

Find new habits

    * Change your habits to make smoking difficult, impossible, or unnecessary. For example, it's hard to smoke when you're swimming, jogging, or playing tennis or handball. When your desire for a cigarette is intense, wash your hands or the dishes, or try new recipes.

    * Do things that require you to use your hands. Try crossword puzzles, needlework, gardening, or household chores. Go bike riding; take the dog for a walk; give yourself a manicure; write letters.

    * Enjoy having a clean-mouth taste and maintain it by brushing your teeth frequently and using a mouthwash.

    * Stretch a lot.

    * Get plenty of rest.

    * Pay attention to your appearance. Look and feel sharp.

    * Try to find time for the activities that are the most meaningful, satisfying, and important to you.

When you get the crazies

    * Keep oral substitutes handy - try carrots, pickles, sunflower seeds, apples, celery, raisins, or sugarless gum instead of a cigarette.

    * Take 10 deep breaths and hold the last one while lighting a match. Exhale slowly and blow out the match. Pretend it's a cigarette and crush it out in an ashtray.

    * Take a shower or bath if possible.

    * Learn to relax quickly and deeply. Make yourself limp, visualize a soothing, pleasing situation, and get away from it all for a moment. Concentrate on that peaceful image and nothing else.

    * Light incense or a candle instead of a cigarette.

    * Never allow yourself to think that "one won't hurt" - it will.

About gaining weight

Many people who're considering quitting are very concerned about gaining weight. If you're concerned about gaining weight, keep these points in mind:

    * Quitting doesn't mean you'll automatically gain weight. When people gain, most of the time it's because they eat more once they've quit.

    * The benefits of giving up cigarettes far outweigh the drawbacks of adding a few extra pounds. You'd have to gain a very large amount of weight to offset the many substantial health benefits that a normal smoker gains by quitting. Watch what you eat, and if you're concerned about gaining weight, consider the following tips:

Tips to help you avoid weight gain...

    * Make sure you have a well-balanced diet, with the proper amounts of protein, carbohydrates, and fat.

    * Don't set a target date for a holiday, when the temptation of high-calorie food and drinks may be too hard to resist.

    * Drink a glass of water before your meals.

    * Weigh yourself weekly.

    * Chew sugarless gum when you want sweet foods.

    * Plan menus carefully, and count calories. Don't try to lose weight - just try to maintain your prequitting weight.

    * Have low-calorie foods on hand for nibbling. Use the Snack Calorie Chart to choose foods that are both nutritious and low in calories. Some good choices are fresh fruits and vegetables, fruit and vegetable juices, low-fat cottage cheese, and air-popped popcorn without butter.

    * Take time for daily exercise, or join an organized exercise group.

HIV GENDER AND TRANSMISION

Gender is an important factor that affects the possibility of an individual becoming infested with HIV.

Women are more vulnerable to sexual infection with HIV for the following reasons:

Biological factor:-

In unprotected heterosexual intercourse, women are twice as likely as men to acquire HIV from infected partner.

      -     The large surface of the virgina wall exposed during intercourse increases the likelihood of transmission of the virus

      -     Very small lessons that occur during intercourse are believed to be entry points for the virus.

      -     Young Women/girls are more at risk because they have not reached maturity; the lining of the virginal is fragile and more likely to be bruised during intercourse.

      -     More quantities of the virus are present in the sperm than in Virgina fluids.

Socio- economic factors

-          Less access to education and economic opportunity results in women being more dependent on men in their relationships they cannot always control when, with whom and in what circumstance they have sex.

-          In many societies women lack knowledge and access to information about HIV/AIDS

-          Many women who have no means of support exchange sex for Material favors and Survival.

Social- cultural factors

-          Some societies do not expect women and girls to make discussions about sex or even to discuss sexually. They are therefore unable to request or insist that their partner use condom.

-          If women request condom use, men often suspects infertility and so women often risk been abused sexually

-          In societies were violence against women is permitted they can be forced to have sex with their regular partners. Women are also expected to get married to men who are much older than them and more sexually experienced than them and more likely to be infected. Men are however seeking younger partners in order to avoid infection and In some areas  men belief that sex with virgins curse Aids and other diseases

-          In many societies men are permitted to have multiple sexual partners and take risk like patronizing commercial sex workers.

MALE VULNERABILITY TO HIV TRANSMMISSION

In some societies same sex relationships are not accepted and this leads to stigmatization of men who have sex with men, making them more likely to hide their sexual behavior and less likely access HIV services. These Issues also need to be addressed

REDUCING WOMEN’S VULNERABILTY TO HIV TRANSMISSION

The transmission of the HIV/AIDS monster virus to the female folks can be greatly reduced through the following means

-          Passing  and enforcing laws that prevents female discrimination

-          Improving access of girls to education

-          Empowering Women economically

-          Increasing representatives of women in politics

-          Involving men in the processes to eliminate gender discrimination

CONCLUSION

The HIV is mainly through exchange of body fluids like blood, semen and virginal secretions, HIV cannot be transmitted by mere contact and social interactions with a person who is infected. There are lots of myths and misconceptions about modes of transmission but we need to know about them to be able to dispel them.

CONTACT US 

For any question you may want to ask please feel free to contact us :

Mobile no: +2347035195471

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Email: talk2caleb@yahoo.com

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WHAT IS BREAST CANCER?

Breast cancer is a malignant (cancerous) growth that begins in the tissues of the breast. Cancer is a disease in which abnormal cells grow in an uncontrolled way. 

                                            TYPES OF BREAST CANCER

    * DUCTAL CARCINOMA: starts in the cells which line the breast's ducts, beneath the nipple and areola. The ducts supply milk to the nipple. Between 85% and 90% of all breast cancers are ducat. If the cancer is DCIS (ductal carcinoma in situ), it is well contained, not invasive, and can be very successfully treated. Usually removed during a lumpectomy, if the tumor margins are clear of cancer, follow-up treatment may include radiation. If ductal cancer has broken into nearby breast tissue (invasive cancer) then a mastectomy may be needed, and your doctor may also recommend chemotherapy.

    * LOBULAR CARCINOMA: begins in the lobes, or glands which produce milk in the breast. The lobes are located deeper inside the breast, under the ducts. About 8% of breast cancers are lobular. If the cancer is LCIS (lobular carcinoma in situ) that means the cancer is limited within the lobe and has not spread. It may be removed during a lumpectomy, if the tumor margins are clear of cancer, follow-up treatment may include radiation. If lobular cancer has spread into nearby breast tissue (invasive cancer) then a mastectomy may be needed, and your doctor may also recommend chemotherapy.

Second most common is a group of breast cancers that invade nearby tissue:

    * INVASIVE (INFILTRATING) BREAST CANCER

      Invasive, or infiltrating, breast cancer has the potential to spread out of the original tumor site and invade other parts of your breast and body. There are several types and subtypes of invasive breast cancer.This rare form of breast cancer is named for its appearance:

    * INFLAMMATORY BREAST CANCER:

is the least common, but most aggressive of breast cancers, taking the form of sheets or nests, instead of lumps. It can start in the soft tissues of the breast, just under the skin, or it can appear in the skin. Unlike ductal and lobular cancers, it is treated first with chemotherapy and then with surgery. When caught early, inflammatory breast cancer can be a manageable disease, and survival rates are increasing.

    Least common is a cancer of the nipple, named for Sir James Paget, who first noticed the relationship between changes in the nipple and the underlying breast cancer:

    * Paget's disease of the nipple/areola often looks like a skin rash, or rough skin. It resembles eczema, and can be itchy. The itching and scabs (if scratched) are signs that cancer may be under the surface of the skin, and is breaking through. Paget's is usually treated with a mastectomy, because the cancer has by then invaded the nipple, areola, and the milk ducts. Although Sir James has several other diseases named for him (bone disease and disease of the vulva) those conditions are not related to this condition of the breast

BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF BREAST CANCER

Breast cancer cells, like all cancers, initially develop because of defects in the genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of a single cell. The human body is composed of trillions of cells. Inside the inner core (nucleus) of each cell is our DNA located on chromosomes. Every human cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes. Each set is inherited from one parent. DNA exists as long, spiraled strands on these chromosomes. Different segments along the DNA strands contain information for various genes. Genes are blueprints that provide genetic instructions for the growth, development, and behavior of every cell. Human DNA is thought to contain approximately 50,000 to 100,000 genes. Most genes carry instructions for the types and the amount of proteins, enzymes, and other substances produced by the cells. Genes also govern the sizes and the shapes of the organs by controlling the rate of division of the cells within these organs. (During cell division, a cell makes a duplicate copy of its chromosomes and then divides into two cells.) Some genes restrict cell division and limit tissue growth.

Defects on the DNA strands can lead to gene coding errors, which in turn can cause diseases. When genes that normally restrict cell growth and divisions are absent or defective, the affected cells can divide and multiply without restraint. The cells that divide and multiply without restraint enlarge (forming a tumor) and can also invade adjacent tissues and organs. These cells can further break away and migrate to distant parts of the body in a process called metastasis. The ability to multiply without restraint, the tendency to invade other organs, and the ability to metastasize to other parts of the body are the key characteristics of cancers -- characteristics that are due to DNA defects.

The cancer-causing DNA defects can be acquired at birth (inherited) or may develop during adult life. The inherited DNA defects are present in every cell of the body. On the other hand, DNA defects that develop during adult life are confined to the descendants (products of cell divisions) of the single affected cell. Generally, inherited DNA defects have a greater tendency to cause cancers and cancers that occur earlier in life than DNA defects that develop during adult life.

Research has shown that 5%-10% of breast cancers are associated with mutations (defects) in two genes known as breast cancer-associated (BRCA) genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2. These genes function to prevent abnormal cell growth that could lead to cancer. Every cell in the body has two BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes, one inherited from each parent. A woman who has received one defective BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene from one parent and a healthy gene from the other is called a carrier of the defective BRCA gene. Even though only one healthy BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene is needed to help prevent cancerous growth of cells, the one remaining healthy BRCA gene is vulnerable to damage during adult life by environmental factors such as toxins, radiation, and other chemicals such as free radicals. Therefore, women bearing a defective BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene are at an increased risk of developing breast and ovarian cancers. Women carrying defective BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes also tend to develop these cancers earlier in life.

Other rare genetic mutations are also associated with an increased risk for the development of breast cancer, including mutations of the tumor suppressor gene, the CHEK-2 gene, and the ATM (ataxia-telangiectasia mutation) gene.

Since inherited DNA defects account for only 5%-10% of breast cancers, the majority of breast cancers are due to DNA damages that develop during adult life. Environmental factors that can cause DNA damage include free radicals, chemicals, radiation, and certain toxins. But even among individuals without inherited cancer-causing DNA defects, their vulnerability to DNA damage, their ability to repair DNA damage, and their ability to destroy cells with DNA damage, are likely to be genetically inherited. This is probably why the risk of cancer is higher among first-degree relatives of breast cancer patients, even among families that do not carry the defective BRCA1 and BRCA2 tumor-suppressing genes.

Some of the errors in the normal control mechanisms allow the accumulation of additional errors in other parts of the system. These errors may lead to gene silencing of critical control genes or the over activity of other growth-stimulating genes by activation of promoter sites adjacent to these otherwise normal genes.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES TO AVOID BREAST CANCER

(i) MAINTAIN CONSTANT WEIGHT :it is necessary to keep a steady acceptable weight throughout the life. A body mass index of below 25 is quite ideal.

(ii)  CONSIDER THE GENETIC FACTORS– It is suspected to be produced due to the abnormalities in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. It is necessary to check up on whatever information you can get about these genes. Additionally, if your family has a history of breast cancer, then you must keep up a regular checkup routine with your doctor.

(iii)  EATING RIGHT FOODS– Several foods have a tenacity to ward off cancers. A list of the foods that are advantageous in breast cancer prevention is given below:-

    * Cruciferous foods such cabbage, cauliflower, sprouts, broccoli, legumes, etc;

    * Citrus vitamin C containing foods such as oranges and tomatoes;

    * Soy products such as tempeh, tofu, edamame, etc;

    * Low carbohydrate foods such as beans and legumes, etc.

(iv)  USE THE RIGHT FATS– Fats are known to influence the chances of breast cancer strongly. It is absolutely necessary to stop the consumption of omega-6 fats such as sunflower, safflower and cottonseed oils; while you must increase the consumption of omega-3 fats such as those obtained from fishes such as salmon and tuna. Mono-saturated oils such as canola and extra virgin olive oil are known to possess specific anti-cancer properties.

(v) ABSTAIN FROM ALCOHOLISM AND SMOKING– Being addicted to alcohol or tobacco, especially if you are overweight is one of the surest ways to invite breast cancer. Just one drink of an alcohol a day can increase your chances of having breast cancer by 20 to 25%.

(vi) BEWARY OF ESTROGEN BOOSTING MEDICINES– Be double skeptical of all drugs that contain estrogen in any form. This includes all the breast enlargement pills, which contain nothing but phyto-estrogens as their active ingredient. Inducing estrogen in the body can create problems with the natural estrogen balance, which will accelerate breast cancer.

(vii) REGULAR EXCERCISE– It has been seen that breast cancer mostly affects women who lead a sedentary and less active lifestyle. Hence, it is necessary for women to maintain a minimum exercise routine per day. It helps if the exercises are chest expansion exercises.

(viii) BE CHEERFUL– Though the effect between mental tensions and breast cancer is not yet proved, there is a strong indication that there may be an underlying factor. Women should maintain a positive outlook. This might play a role in thwarting the onset of the disease.

The above are the basic precautions that you can take against the dreadful breast cancer. Right knowledge and timely care may just go a long way in saving your life if you fall an unfortunate victim of the disease.

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What is cancer?

Cancer is an abnormal growth which occurs in any organ in the body. some could grow very fast and lead to death in a short period of time(malignant cancers).others grow relatively slow(benign cancers).Reproductive cancers can affect any of the reproductive organs. In most cases, people develop cancer when they are much older. However, they often been exposed to the factors that predisposes to cancer were they were younger e.g. when they were adolescents. it is therefore important for adolescents to know about factors which can lead to development of cancer later in life so they can avoid them during their youth

CANCER OF THE BREAST AND REPRODUCTIVE TRACT

The commonest cancer in women is the breast cancer. Cancer of the breast can also occur in men.

Common cancers of the reproductive tracts are as follows:

Cancers in females

a. Cancer of there cervix (the commonest reproductive tract cancer in women)

b. Cancer of the Ovary

c. Cancer of the Uterus

Cancers in males

a. Cancer of the prostate gland (the commonest reproductive tract cancer in men)

b. cancer of the testes

CAUSES OF CANCER

The cause of cancer is largely unknown; however some factors which predispose one to cancer are known. These include:

1. Smoking

2. Exposure to radiation

3. Eating some foods e.g. smoked foods, processed foods, spicy foods

4. Family history

The human papiloma virus (HPV) has being i identified as the cause of cervical cancer. the virus is transmitted through sexual intercourse. Other factors which increase the risk of developing cervical cancer in HPV-infected women are as follows;

A. early initiation of sex

B .Having five or more pregnancies

C.Smoking

D.Co-infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, herpes simplex virus, long term use of oral contraceptives and immune suppression

SYMPTOMS OF CANCER

An unusual growth of the affected organ

Pain

Bleeding

Weight loss

In cancers where the internal reproductive organs are affected, the usual growth / swelling is not seen and the person only has symptoms like pain, difficulty passing urine When the Cancer Other Problems or invades other organs

TREATMENT OF CANCER

Surgery to remove the cancer

Chemotherapy – The Use of anti cancer drugs

Radiotherapy

PREVENTION OF CANCER

The cause of most cancers is not known therefore making prevention difficult. Abstaining from sexual intercourse will protect a female from getting infested with HPV and thus reduce the likelihood of having cervical cancer.

Vaccines against some type of the HPV have been developed

Screening is an important aspect of protection. it help  to detect the cancer in the very early stage. Regular breast self examination for lump/swellings in the breast helps to detect cancer early. This should be done by both boys and girls. Screening for cervical cancer is also available

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